The rotation group SO(2) as a circle

2 \times 2

matrix has four entries, so you can view it as a point in

\mathbb{R}^4

. Most of these points are not rotations. A rotation matrix must satisfy three constraints: each column has unit length (two constraints), and the columns are orthogonal (one constraint). Four entries minus three constraints leaves one degree of freedom, the angle

\theta

R(\theta) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -\sin\theta \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta \end{bmatrix}

\theta

changes,

R(\theta)

traces a curve in

\mathbb{R}^4

. That curve is

SO(2)

, a one-dimensional manifold inside a four-dimensional space. The calculations and figures below construct this curve, determine its shape, and relate its velocity to an element of

\mathfrak{so}(2)

. This section studies

SO(2)

and its Lie algebra

\mathfrak{so}(2)

, the first two rows of the table in the Lie cheatsheet. Their geometry can be computed and drawn directly.

Sampling the curve

Each value of

\theta

gives one rotation matrix. Flattening the matrix row by row gives a point in

\mathbb{R}^4

with coordinates

(r_{11}, r_{12}, r_{21}, r_{22})

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np


def rot(theta):
    c, s = np.cos(theta), np.sin(theta)
    return np.array([[c, -s], [s, c]])


thetas = np.linspace(0, 2 * np.pi, 400)
Rs = np.stack([rot(t) for t in thetas])  # shape (400, 2, 2)
points = Rs.reshape(len(thetas), 4)  # (r11, r12, r21, r22) per row

# Every sample satisfies the rotation constraints
orth_err = np.abs(np.einsum("nji,njk->nik", Rs, Rs) - np.eye(2)).max()
det_err = np.abs(np.linalg.det(Rs) - 1).max()
print(f"max |R^T R - I| = {orth_err:.1e}")
print(f"max |det R - 1| = {det_err:.1e}")

max |R^T R - I| = 2.2e-16
max |det R - 1| = 2.2e-16

The shape of the curve

The four coordinates of

R(\theta)

are

(\cos\theta, -\sin\theta, \sin\theta, \cos\theta)

. They satisfy two linear relations:

r_{22} = r_{11}

and

r_{12} = -r_{21}

. These relations confine the curve to a two-dimensional plane inside

\mathbb{R}^4

. Within that plane, the remaining constraint

r_{11}^2 + r_{21}^2 = 1

is the equation of a circle. Thus

SO(2)

is a circle. Its distance from the origin of

\mathbb{R}^4

is the Frobenius norm of

R

, which is

\sqrt{2}

for every rotation. The curve is closed because

\theta

and

\theta + 2\pi

give the same matrix. The calculation below checks the two linear relations and the distance from the origin.

r11, r12, r21, r22 = points.T

print(f"max |r22 - r11|        = {np.abs(r22 - r11).max():.1e}")
print(f"max |r12 + r21|        = {np.abs(r12 + r21).max():.1e}")
print(f"distance from origin   = {np.linalg.norm(points, axis=1).min():.4f} to {np.linalg.norm(points, axis=1).max():.4f}")
print(f"sqrt(2)                = {np.sqrt(2):.4f}")
print(f"closes on itself       = {np.allclose(rot(0), rot(2 * np.pi))}")

max |r22 - r11|        = 0.0e+00
max |r12 + r21|        = 0.0e+00
distance from origin   = 1.4142 to 1.4142
sqrt(2)                = 1.4142
closes on itself       = True

Drawing the curve

You cannot draw

\mathbb{R}^4

, but the relations among the entries let you use fewer coordinates. Because

r_{22}

always equals

r_{11}

, dropping it loses no information. The plot below uses the three coordinates

(r_{11}, r_{21}, r_{12})

, and color indicates the angle

\theta

. The curve is a tilted circle centered at the origin.

The determinant as signed areaThe unit square has corners

(0,0)

(1,0)

(1,1)

and

(0,1)

. Its sides are the basis vectors

\mathbf{e}_1 = (1, 0)

and

\mathbf{e}_2 = (0, 1)

, and its area is 1. A matrix sends

\mathbf{e}_1

to its first column and

\mathbf{e}_2

to its second column. It therefore sends the unit square to the parallelogram spanned by its columns. For

A = \begin{bmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{bmatrix}

that parallelogram has signed area

ad - bc

, which is

\det A

. Since the original square has area 1, the determinant is the factor by which the matrix scales area. The same factor applies to every region because any region can be tiled with small squares.The sign records orientation. Walking around the unit square from

\mathbf{e}_1

\mathbf{e}_2

is a counterclockwise turn. The determinant is positive if the image of

\mathbf{e}_2

remains counterclockwise from the image of

\mathbf{e}_1

. If the matrix reflects the square, that turn becomes clockwise and the determinant is negative. A determinant of zero means that the square is flattened onto a line and the matrix cannot be undone.The determinant does not measure the size of a matrix.

\begin{bmatrix} 3 & 0 \\ 0 & 1/3 \end{bmatrix}

stretches one direction by a factor of 3, yet its determinant is 1 because the squeeze in the other direction preserves area. A matrix’s effect on vector lengths is measured by its norm or singular values. The calculations and plots below compare these cases.

examples = {
    "rotation by 30°": rot(np.pi / 6),
    "reflection": np.array([[np.cos(np.pi / 3), np.sin(np.pi / 3)], [np.sin(np.pi / 3), -np.cos(np.pi / 3)]]),
    "uniform scaling by 1.5": 1.5 * np.eye(2),
    "stretch and squeeze": np.array([[3, 0], [0, 1 / 3]]),
    "singular": np.array([[1, 0.5], [1, 0.5]]),
}

unit_square = np.array([[0, 0], [1, 0], [1, 1], [0, 1]]).T  # corners as columns


def signed_area(corners):
    # Shoelace formula; corners has shape (2, N) in walking order
    x, y = corners
    return 0.5 * np.sum(x * np.roll(y, -1) - np.roll(x, -1) * y)


for name, A in examples.items():
    image = A @ unit_square
    print(f"{name:24s} det = {np.linalg.det(A):+.3f}   signed area of image = {signed_area(image):+.3f}")

rotation by 30°          det = +1.000   signed area of image = +1.000
reflection               det = -1.000   signed area of image = -1.000
uniform scaling by 1.5   det = +2.250   signed area of image = +2.250
stretch and squeeze      det = +1.000   signed area of image = +1.000
singular                 det = +0.000   signed area of image = +0.000

In the rotation, the red and blue arrows keep their counterclockwise order, and the square keeps its area. In the reflection, the area is unchanged, but the blue arrow is clockwise from the red one. The uniform scaling multiplies the area by

1.5^2 = 2.25

. The stretch and squeeze map changes the shape but preserves the area. The singular matrix sends both columns onto the same line, so the square has no area left.

Rotations and reflections

Orthonormal columns alone do not make a rotation. The matrices

F(\theta) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & \sin\theta \\ \sin\theta & -\cos\theta \end{bmatrix}

also have orthonormal columns, but

\det F = -1

. Each is a reflection across a line through the origin. As

\theta

changes, these matrices trace a second circle in

\mathbb{R}^4

. The two circles together form

O(2)

, the group of all orthogonal

2 \times 2

matrices. The condition

\det R = +1

selects the circle containing the identity. No continuous path of orthogonal matrices can turn a rotation into a reflection because

\det

would have to jump from

+1

-1

. Thus

SO(2)

is a manifold in its own right. The calculation below confirms that every rotation is at distance 2 from every reflection.

def refl(theta):
    c, s = np.cos(theta), np.sin(theta)
    return np.array([[c, s], [s, -c]])


Fs = np.stack([refl(t) for t in thetas])
print(f"det of reflections: {np.linalg.det(Fs).min():.3f} to {np.linalg.det(Fs).max():.3f}")

# Distance in R^4 between every rotation and every reflection
F_points = Fs.reshape(len(thetas), 4)
dists = np.linalg.norm(points[:, None, :] - F_points[None, :, :], axis=2)
print(f"rotation-to-reflection distance: min {dists.min():.4f}, max {dists.max():.4f}")

det of reflections: -1.000 to -1.000
rotation-to-reflection distance: min 2.0000, max 2.0000

Seeing both circles

The coordinates

(r_{11}, r_{12}, r_{21}, r_{22})

hide the geometry. The relations satisfied by each family suggest another set of axes for

\mathbb{R}^4

a = \tfrac{r_{11} + r_{22}}{\sqrt{2}}, \quad b = \tfrac{r_{21} - r_{12}}{\sqrt{2}}, \quad c = \tfrac{r_{11} - r_{22}}{\sqrt{2}}, \quad d = \tfrac{r_{21} + r_{12}}{\sqrt{2}}

These four axes are orthonormal, so they describe the same space without distortion. A rotation has

c = d = 0

and lands at

(a, b) = \sqrt{2}(\cos\theta, \sin\theta)

. A reflection has

a = b = 0

and lands at

(c, d) = \sqrt{2}(\cos\theta, \sin\theta)

. Thus

\mathbb{R}^4

splits into two perpendicular planes. The rotations form a circle of radius

\sqrt{2}

in the

(a, b)

plane. The reflections form a circle of the same radius in the

(c, d)

plane. Each circle projects to the origin of the other plane. This also explains the constant distance. Any rotation is

\sqrt{2}

from the origin in one plane, and any reflection is

\sqrt{2}

from the origin in the perpendicular plane. By Pythagoras, they are

\sqrt{2 + 2} = 2

apart. The calculation and plots below show this decomposition.

def plane_coords(M):
    # M has shape (N, 2, 2); returns (N, 4) with columns a, b, c, d
    r11, r12, r21, r22 = M[:, 0, 0], M[:, 0, 1], M[:, 1, 0], M[:, 1, 1]
    return np.stack([r11 + r22, r21 - r12, r11 - r22, r21 + r12], axis=1) / np.sqrt(2)


rot_abcd = plane_coords(Rs)
ref_abcd = plane_coords(Fs)
print(f"rotations:   max |c|, |d| = {np.abs(rot_abcd[:, 2:]).max():.1e}")
print(f"reflections: max |a|, |b| = {np.abs(ref_abcd[:, :2]).max():.1e}")

rotations:   max |c|, |d| = 0.0e+00
reflections: max |a|, |b| = 0.0e+00

One column is enough

The first column of

R(\theta)

is the image of the unit vector

\mathbf{e}_1

. It is the point

(\cos\theta, \sin\theta)

on the unit circle in the plane. Once you know the first column, orthogonality and

\det R = +1

determine the second. It is the first column turned by

90°

counterclockwise. Every rotation therefore corresponds to exactly one point on the unit circle, and every point on the unit circle corresponds to exactly one rotation. This one-to-one correspondence identifies

SO(2)

with a circle. The top panel follows the first column as

\theta

grows. The row below shows the full rotated frame

\{R\mathbf{e}_1, R\mathbf{e}_2\}

at the same angles.

The tangent at the identity

A one-dimensional manifold looks like a straight line at sufficiently small scales. At the identity (

\theta = 0

), this line is tangent to the curve. Its direction is the derivative of

R(\theta)

\theta = 0

\left.\frac{dR}{d\theta}\right|_{\theta=0} = \begin{bmatrix} -\sin 0 & -\cos 0 \\ \cos 0 & -\sin 0 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}

This skew-symmetric matrix is an element of

\mathfrak{so}(2)

. Call it

G

. Scaling it by an angular rate

\omega

gives every possible velocity at the identity. Thus

\mathfrak{so}(2)

is one-dimensional, like

SO(2)

. The tangent space is a vector space. Each element is a linear combination of basis matrices called generators. For

SO(2)

the tangent space is one-dimensional, so the single matrix

G

is a basis:

\mathfrak{so}(2) = \left\{ \omega G : \omega \in \mathbb{R} \right\} = \operatorname{span}\{G\}, \qquad G = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}

The angular rate

\omega

is the coordinate of a velocity in this basis. The matrix exponential maps back onto the curve: exponentiating

\theta G

reproduces

R(\theta)

. Appendix D of Corke (Corke, 2023) develops the same construction step by step. It writes any

2 \times 2

matrix as a combination of four basis matrices, places

SO(2)

as a closed curve in that four-dimensional space, and repeats the construction for

SO(3)

, whose tangent space at the identity has three generators. Lie groups and tangent spaces presents the tangent space and exponential map in a broader setting. The calculation below checks the derivative, skew symmetry, and exponential map.

from scipy.linalg import expm

h = 1e-6
dR = (rot(h) - rot(-h)) / (2 * h)  # central difference at theta = 0
print("dR/dtheta at identity:")
print(np.round(dR, 6))
print("skew-symmetric:", np.allclose(dR, -dR.T))

theta = 1.2
print(f"\nexp({theta} * dR) equals R({theta}):", np.allclose(expm(theta * dR), rot(theta)))

dR/dtheta at identity:
[[ 0. -1.]
 [ 1.  0.]]
skew-symmetric: True

exp(1.2 * dR) equals R(1.2): True

References

Corke, P. (2023). Robotics, vision and control: Fundamental algorithms in python.

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Robotics Systems

Motion Algebras

Kinematics

Dynamics

Systems Integration

The rotation group SO(2) as a circle

Sampling the curve

The shape of the curve

Drawing the curve

Rotations and reflections

Seeing both circles

One column is enough

The tangent at the identity

References

​Sampling the curve

​The shape of the curve

​Drawing the curve

​Rotations and reflections

​Seeing both circles

​One column is enough

​The tangent at the identity

​References

Sampling the curve

The shape of the curve

Drawing the curve

Rotations and reflections

Seeing both circles

One column is enough

The tangent at the identity

References